Kazakhstani authorities need to pay more attention to the consequences of nuclear testing in the Semipalatinsk region, says Aigerim Musabalinova, PhD, a national expert on children’s rights, researcher and consultant. A brief study conducted in September 2022 in the field of education revealed that there has yet to be an attempt at the state level to assess the damage done to the region and the people.
About 1.6 million people living in the districts and cities of Semipalatinsk oblast and the corresponding districts of Pavlodar, East Kazakhstan and Karaganda oblasts are recognised as victims of nuclear tests conducted by the Soviet military-industrial complex between 1949 and 1989.
In 50 years of nuclear testing, more than 450 nuclear and thermonuclear explosions have been carried out at the Semipalatinsk test site, including 30 above-ground, 86 atmospheric, and 348 underground.[1] In comparison, in the United States, only 1,030 nuclear tests were carried out at the Nevada Test Site from 1945 to 1992, including 210 above-ground, 815 underground, and 5 underwater.[2]
The Semipalatinsk test site included 18,000 square metres of land, the Irtysh River, and 340,000 people in the city of Semipalatinsk (present-day Semey – Ed. note).[3] According to residents of the region, including doctors, teachers, social workers, and civic activists, the issue of education for the children of the affected region was not raised during the closure of the test site in 1990 and subsequent years.
Many children who could not access education and related services for health reasons were educated at home and were unable to socialise, some of whom have already died in adult boarding schools. From 1997 to 2022, within East Kazakhstan Oblast, the problems and needs of the Semipalatinsk region, as well as the consequences of the nuclear test site, were intentionally or unintentionally silenced.
The political and economic crisis of the country in general, as well as the change of priorities of the country’s leadership of those times, led to the aggravation of the situation of children in the region and the quality of education for children with special educational needs (hereinafter referred to as SEN). In 2022, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev declared the need to restore historical and cultural justice for the inhabitants of the region.
Nuclear testing was halted in 1989, and the nuclear test site was closed after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 on 29 August.[4] The remaining 1,216 nuclear bombs (until 1995) were gradually removed to Russia, with the remaining uranium, almost 600 kilograms, also gradually ( up until 2004) taken to the US.[5]
There is less and less discussion about the consequences of the nuclear tests, the topic arises most often on 29 August, the day nuclear tests begin and end. More than 700 materials have been published over the past 30 years, including those commemorating the day of the closure of nuclear tests,[6] but the lives of local people affected by nuclear tests and their descendants have not improved.
Access to education for children and grandchildren of victims of nuclear testing in the Semipalatinsk region
A short research study on securing the right to education for children and grandchildren of victims of nuclear testing in the Semipalatinsk region was conducted over a six-month period from September 2022 to February 2023. This was part of a three-year initiative by four universities around the world (Ulster, Cape Town, Nazarbayev and Sussex) to undertake a political-economic analysis of education in conflict-affected Central Asian countries.[7]
The method of original data collection for this study was a qualitative semi-structured interview. Practitioners and professionals as well as civic activists working with children or involved with the Nevada-Semipalatinsk social movement took part in the study. The research received ethical approval from the University of Ulster. Data were collected during two months, in September and October 2022.
Participants were selected from four regions: Abai Oblast (former Semipalatinsk Oblast), including two villages and the city of Semey, Astana (capital), Almaty (former capital) and Karaganda. A total of 30 participants were interviewed, including 13 civic activists, 10 education specialists, 5 medical workers and 2 social workers.
More than ten enquiries to the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Labour and Social Protection and other ministries and local executive bodies in charge of social welfare, education, health, and justice have not yielded any results. In particular, the central executive bodies do not have information on which it would be possible to compare the number of children with SEN, including those related to the effects of radiation on adult residents of the region and/or children over the past thirty years, with similar data from other regions for various reasons.
This may be because health and radiation effects are not monitored separately for the Semipalatinsk region or the affected regions mentioned above. The status of the regional centre was returned to Semipalatinsk, or Semey as it is now known, in 2022. Accessible statistics are available only for East Kazakhstan region.
Table 1. Number of students enrolled in inclusive education in general education schools in Kazakhstan, 2021
State and public figure Keshrim Boztayev in 1992 in his book about the Semipalatinsk test site wrote about the opening of the Institute of Radiation Medicine and Ecology in the city, the purpose of which was to diagnose diseases of the inhabitants of the region in terms of connection with nuclear testing and the corresponding provision of benefits.
However, the list of diseases that are associated with nuclear testing has been reduced and access to the institute has been restricted. Below are excerpts from some of the interviews with specialists in the region (names changed to ensure confidentiality and anonymity).
— As a mother of a child with cerebral palsy says 7 circles of hell you have to go through… Pretty much if you’re lucky… If you have some strings to pull. If the first group gets 63 thousand tenge, and if you prove that the polygon is specifically connected with radiology – 110 thousand tenge. (Aidana, social worker, September).
— We have about 10 children in our school who have been determined to have disabilities due to nuclear testing. (Umyt, educator, September 2022).
The Institute’s management refused to take part in the study without finding a link between their activities and issues of access to education for children affected by nuclear testing. In general, state policy, both in Soviet times and at the present time, on this issue remains more closed and underestimates indicators. This is stated in almost every published article, and book, and also by the participants in this study.
— They don’t talk about the polygon whatsoever. As if nothing had ever happened. (Bibigul, education specialist, September 2022).
Overall, the results of the study showed that significant improvements in education, health care and social protection are needed in the region to ensure that the rights of children affected by nuclear testing in the Semipalatinsk region to education are respected.
For example, the only psychological, medical and pedagogical counselling room (hereinafter referred to as PMPC) of Semey city available at the time of conducting the research also serves 3 remote regions of the Abay region, which totals more than 200,000 children’s population. Whereas, according to the recommendations stipulated by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, there should be one PMPC per 50,000 children population.
Overall, the number of children in the country has quadrupled since 2010, and the number of children with SEN has increased accordingly, but it has not been possible to establish how many children with SEN are affected by nuclear testing.
Inclusive education, or access to education, should be considered at the early developmental stage of a child’s life, i.e. the involvement of health professionals is vital.
Early intervention, including early diagnosis and correction of child development, is key to ensuring access to education. Health and social care professionals do not recognise the important role of early intervention in a child’s development and subsequent access to the general education programme. Thus, only two professionals from social protection and five from healthcare services participated in the study.
Analysis of available data shows that inclusive education is underdeveloped in the country as a whole, for example, more than half of school-aged children with SEN in East Kazakhstan region (in 2021, Semipalatinsk region was part of East Kazakhstan region) do not attend inclusive classes (see Table 1). Thus, children remain in home-based education and are deprived of opportunities to develop social skills, including communication skills, due to a lack of places in special schools and preschool organisations, or a lack of trained teachers in schools to work with children with SEN.
At the regional level, the stigmatisation of residents of the Semipalatinsk region also has a negative impact on public health.[8] More research is needed in this area to deconstruct such stigma and radiophobia.
— We Semey people are used to hearing such things. People from other regions are afraid of us. They say you can’t marry a girl from Semey. Residents of Shymkent, Atyrau, Zhambyl region say so. Because it will affect their offspring. They say that it is better not to marry girls from the East. Although we are the fourth generation. (Aizhan, social worker, September 2022).
— We have a woman in our village who is 40 years old, has oligophrenia and has had only 7 years of education. She can’t write or read, she only knows how to sign. I am in contact with her. She doesn’t like the pension. She perceives it as stigmatisation… She does not have her own social worker as she is not recognised as disabled. (Nina, civil activist, September 2022).
In the region and in the country there is a need for awareness-raising activities to prevent discriminatory behaviour. As an example of negative impact, we can name late diagnosis of childhood developmental lag and subsequent disablement or restrictions in the child’s socialisation.Economic indicators of the Semipalatinsk region for the period of Kazakhstan’s independence are difficult to draw since the region was part of the East Kazakhstan region for 25 years. According to the state programme of regional development of 2019, the city of Semey, with a population of 348 thousand people, was classified as a group of “second-tier” cities on par with regional centres of other regions.[9] The comprehensive plan of socio-economic development of Semey city of East Kazakhstan region for 2020 — 2025 years noted that the city accounts for 10% of industrial production, and 6.6% of agricultural products produced in East Kazakhstan region, while for the 2018 – 2019 school year the deficit of student places in the city was 3 900, depreciation of heating networks — 62%, the water supply — 65%, the morbidity of the population was – 293.5 cases per 100 thousand population or 1.5 times higher than the national average, mortality — 135.3 cases per 100 thousand population or 1.5 times higher than the national average, mortality – 135.3 cases per 100,000 population or 1.7 times higher than the national average.[10]
Such indicators point to the lack of funding for socially important facilities in the city. Thus, according to the rating of regions for 2023, conducted by the JSC “Institute of Economic Research”, Semey became the city where the quality of life is the worst, the city took the last place in the rating among 25 cities.[11] This is a natural result of the lack of development of the region during the period when the former Semipalatinsk region (now Abai region) became part of the East Kazakhstan region.
The study also showed that the topic is still highly relevant, but it has been silenced for a long time. In general, we would like to draw attention to the needs of the region, which should be further assessed. The government should develop reforms and public policies according to the needs of each region individually.
A New Phase of the Region’s Development
It is symbolic that by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the former Semipalatinsk region was reestablished and renamed to Abai region exactly 25 years later, namely on 3 May 2022.
According to the Comprehensive Plan of Socio-Economic Development of the Abay Region for 2023-2027, presented by the Ministry of National Economy, the region plans to build six small schools, additions to existing schools, a schoolchildren’s palace, a boarding school, as well as nine kindergartens and three children’s camps.[12] In 2023, education officials also announced plans to open another PMPC in the near future, and a new rehabilitation centre has already opened in the city of Semey.
As can be seen, the inhabitants of the Semipalatinsk region suffered as a result of the Cold War and then the collapse of the Soviet Union, and subsequent threats of separatism in the early nineties, political and economic crisis.
The literature review has shown that, unlike European colonisers, Russia does not recognise colonial policy towards the former Soviet Union countries, including long-term nuclear tests on human beings on the territory of Kazakhstan, as a colonial policy. Whereas, conducting nuclear tests on human beings on the territory of Kazakhstan falls under the definition given in the articles of Russian scientists: “colonisation – the process of settlement and development of foreign territories with further subjugation of the indigenous population.[13] The international community agrees that Kazakhstan is entitled to compensation:
— I have been to different countries… I remember when I spoke at the UN, I was approached by NGOs from other countries. There were provocative proposals. They offered the services of lawyers against Russia. They were saying that we should demand. Those who caused harm should be compensated, etc. Medical care for these children. (Adilet, civil activist, August 2022).
This article, based on academic research data, is a step in recognising colonial policies on the part of countries that have been subjected to such policies.
Conclusions and recommendations
In the region, not all children affected by nuclear testing have access to education or quality education. Therefore, the generation of those children of independent Kazakhstan who stayed within 4 walls or died in institutions is missing in society (among the active adult population). The rights of local residents were violated not only during the Soviet period but also nowadays. No special conditions were created in the field of education for children and teachers. The economic crisis in the region after the collapse of the Soviet Union had a negative impact on people who had already suffered from radiation.
Poor nutrition, poverty and unemployment have contributed to a deeper marginalisation of affected children (institutionalisation of children, poor or absence of quality education). Some have already died within the four walls of boarding schools, while others remain confined without a chance to fully develop their potential. The echo of the Cold War and the colonial policy of the Soviet Union is still reflected in the descendants of the inhabitants of the Semipalatinsk region (Abay district). The stigmatisation and radiophobia among people is evidence of the lack of reconciliation measures, including education/awareness work in the region and the country.
After more than thirty years, the region finally got a chance to develop with the granting of regional status in 2022. This stage of the region’s development can be attributed to the beginning of the decolonisation policy. The study, which gave the people of the region the opportunity to speak with full confidence about their concerns, can also be attributed to the de-colonial stage in the field of research. However, for more conclusive facts, more in-depth research is needed, in which there is a need for government interest and cooperation in obtaining administrative data for analysis. As part of the region’s revitalisation policy, there are hopes that the central government, in conjunction with the regional authority, will be able to properly assess the needs of all areas of the region, including education and the needs of children with SEN. Recognition of the consequences of the nuclear test site and radiation, as well as open discussion of the issues, including through education, can help to shatter stigmas against the region’s residents and radiophobia among residents and build trust in the government.
Sectoral recommendations:[14]
Local executive bodies:
1) It is necessary to accurately identify the needs of children in the region and then build the work on closing these needs.
2) Create/build family support centres so that families and parents have a place to approach.
Education:
3) Expand the network of PMPCs and psychological-pedagogical correction rooms in the city and region at the rate of 1 PMPC per 50,000 population of children.
4) Create conditions and invite qualified education specialists to the region to improve the quality of services.
Healthcare/science:
5) Create conditions and invite qualified medical professionals to the region to improve the quality of services;
6) Expand the network of rehabilitation centres in the city and region;
7) Conduct a comprehensive study on the impact of nuclear testing on children living in the region and inform the population of the results;
8) Revise the activities of the Research Institute of Radiation Medicine and Ecology;
Social protection:
9) Consider paying for accommodation and transport costs of parents for the period of assessment / rehabilitation of children with SEN.
Media in collaboration with the civil society and Ministry of Information and Social Development:
10) Conduct community outreach on zero tolerance of stigmatisation of children/people with developmental delays and diseases and to shatter radiophobia both in the region and in the country.
[1] Werner, C. and Purvis-Roberts, K. (2006) ‘After the Cold War: international politics, domestic policy and the nuclear legacy in Kazakhstan’, Central Asian survey, 25(4), pp. 461–480. doi:10.1080/02634930701210542; Stawkowski, M. E. (2016) ‘“I am a radioactive mutant”: Emergent biological subjectivities at Kazakhstan’s Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site’, American ethnologist, 43(1), pp. 144–157. doi:10.1111/amet.12269.
[2] United States Deaprtments of Energy Nevada Opeerations Office (2020) “United Sates Nuclear Tests July 1945 throght Septrember 1992 (DOE/NV—209-REV 15, December 2000) http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2015/ph241/ukropina2/docs/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf
[3] Kassenova, T. (2022) Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave up the Bomb. Redwood City: Stanford University Press.
[4] Boztaev, K.B., Semipalatinsk polygon. — 1992.
[5] Werner, C. and Purvis-Roberts, K. (2006) ‘After the Cold War: international politics, domestic policy and the nuclear legacy in Kazakhstan’, Central Asian survey, 25(4), pp. 461–480. doi:10.1080/02634930701210542.
[6] Mukanova Z., Kaisina O., Sayagub S., Baibatyrova G., Ospanova A. 30 years since the closure of Semipalatinsk polygon: bibliographic index. — 2021, Semey.
[7] PEER Network Project Overview, https://peernetworkgcrf.org/ru/%d0%be-%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%81/%d0%be%d0%b1%d0%b7%d0%be%d1%80-%d0%bf%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b5%d0%ba%d1%82%d0%b0/
[8] Atchabarov, B. A. (2002). Заблуждения, ложь и истина по вопросу оценки влияния на здоровье людей испытания атомного оружия на Семипалатинском ядерном полигоне: научное издание. Almaty: Karzhy-Karajat; Stawkowski, M. E. (2016) ”I am a radioactive mutant’: Emergent biological subjectivities at Kazakhstan’s Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site’, American ethnologist, 43(1), pp. 144-157. doi:10.1111/amet.12269; Stawkowski, M. E. (2017). Radiophobia had to be reinvented. Culture, Theory and Critique, 58(4), 357-374.
[9] https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/P1900000990
[10] https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/P1900000742.
[11] https://16news.kz/news/oblast/Neuzheli-Semey-deystvitelno-hudshiy-gorod-v-Kazahstane-po-kachestvu-zhizni-4394.
[12] https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/economy/press/news/details/493885?lang=ru.
[13] Korostelev P. E., Yurlov L. N. Процесс деколонизации в XX веке как одна из форм прав народов на самоопределение //Актуальные проблемы конституционного, муниципального и международного права. – 2018. – pp. 73-78.
[14] These recommendations were presented at a roundtable with the participation of the local city administration, civic activists, parents and the media, in Semey on 10 February 2023.