“Official Seoul is trying to diversify its trade and economic routes by connecting South Korea with the continental part of Eurasia. It is the diversification of trading partners that is an urgent task not only for the Republic of Korea, but also for the Central Asian states, which pushes them towards practical cooperation,” political scientist Ainura Akmatalieva notes in her article written specifically for the analytical portal CABAR.asia.
The Republic of Korea has always remained an attractive foreign policy area for the Central Asian states. On the one hand, the multi-vector principle, and the status of neutrality in the foreign policy of the states of the region contribute to the diversification of partners for cooperation in search of a balance between the influence of large actors. On the other hand, the pragmatic interests of the Central Asian elites have always been more clearly expressed in relation to states that are not included in the orbit of, say, direct geopolitical influence or pressure. In this regard, the experience of cooperation between the Central Asian states and the Republic of Korea demonstrates an example of pragmatic and mutually beneficial cooperation. The Republic of Korea, in the context of the transformation of the world order, offers its vision of cooperation with the states of Eurasia within the framework of the New Northern Policy.
Level of diplomatic relations
The Republic of Korea was one of the first states in the Asia-Pacific region to recognize the independence of all the republics of Central Asia and established diplomatic relations in 1992.The Republic of Korea has diplomatic missions in all capitals of the five republics; since 2016, the Consulate General has also been operating in Almaty. The Central Asian states also have their diplomatic missions at the level of the embassy in Seoul, and in August 2021, the President of Kazakhstan K. Zh. Tokayev issued a decree on the opening of the Consulate General in Busan.
Since 1992, 16 summits have been held between Korea and Uzbekistan, 14 with Kazakhstan, 5 with Turkmenistan, 2 with Kyrgyzstan and 3 with Tajikistan.[1] If the number of summits demonstrates the dynamics and degree of cooperation, then the level of formal visits of top officials emphasizes areas of interest. Visits by top officials are not characterized by intensity, but any visit is timed to coincide with a specific event, like the opening of a joint venture or a cultural center. The presidents of all Central Asian republics made visits to Seoul, and the leaders of the Republic of Korea were only in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, at the level of the prime minister in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
In this vein, the President of Kazakhstan was only 3 times in the Republic of Korea during the entire period of relations: N. Nazarbayev in 1995 and 2003, and K. Zh. Tokayev in 2021. The Presidents of the Republic of Korea visited Kazakhstan with a difference of 5 years: 2004 – Roh Moo-hyun; 2009 – Lee Myung-bak 2014 – Park Geun-hye and 2019 – Moon Jae-in. The presidents of Kyrgyzstan visited the Republic of Korea in the following years: A. Akaev in 1997 and A. Atambaev 2010. From the Republic of Korea, not a single president has visited Bishkek, the highest level was the visit of Prime Minister Lee Nak-yon in 2019. The visit of the Uzbek leader to the Republic of Korea took place in 2017, and the President of the country of morning dew Moon Jae-in visited Tashkent in 2019.
Tajik leader E. Rahmon made two visits in 2005 and in 2015 to Seoul, and at the level of Prime Minister Lee Nak-yon in 2019 he paid a visit to Dushanbe. It is known that in 2008 G. Berdimuhamedov visited the Republic of Korea, and President Moon Jae-in visited Ashgabat in 2019.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea has an agency KOICA – the Korean International Cooperation Agency, which implements projects of gratuitous assistance to states. In the republics of Central Asia, KOICA has been operating since 1994 and supports programs in various directions. For example, for the period from 1995 to 2018, the Agency allocated 94.32 million USD for the implementation of 29 projects in Uzbekistan.[2] In Kyrgyzstan, it supports the creation of biometric passports and the “My Village (Моё село)” project.[3]
In general, it should be noted that the Republic of Korea is actively building up economic cooperation with Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and partly with Turkmenistan, and with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan is limited to the sphere of cultural and humanitarian interaction. Tashkent and Astana strive to intensify the participation of Korean companies and investments in their economies and look forward to receiving high technologies and innovative developments.
New Northern Policy Initiative of the Republic of Korea and the Central Asian States
Mutual expectations and interest in cooperation have always been openly expressed during formal visits of top officials. Of course, expectations are constantly being adjusted considering global trends in world politics and regional changes, as well as changes in the internal politics of states. On the one hand, the activation of the Eurasian initiatives of the PRC as a “Belt and Road”, Russia for the creation of Greater Eurasia, the United States – the New Silk Road, Japan – the Silk Road Diplomacy, etc. pushed Seoul to advance its strategic vision through the New Northern Policy Initiative.
President Park Geun-hye proposed a “New Northern Policy” or the so-called Eurasian initiative in October 2013, which has been more fully developed under the incumbent President Moon Jae-in since 2017. The initiative itself is an attempt to intensify the policy towards the continental states of Eurasia in the foreign policy of the Republic of Korea. The New North Policy, like the New South Policy, is part of the Republic of Korea’s foreign policy platform to create a “New Economic Map of the Korean Peninsula” through the responsible Northeast Asia Plus community. Therefore, the key goal of the New Economic Map of the Korean Peninsula is “the idea of connecting the Republic of Korea with the continent through the DPRK.”[4]
Clearly, the relevance of the New Northern Policy is primarily due to the national interests of the Republic of Korea itself. On the one hand, the policy is aimed at overcoming the dependence of the Republic of Korea on the sea routes passing through the South China Sea, the Malacca Strait and off the Horn of Africa, which are becoming a source of confrontation between the powers of the Asia-Pacific region, where the strengthening of the economic and military-political presence of the PRC causes concern of other regional states. In this regard, it is obvious that Seoul is trying to diversify its trade and economic routes by connecting South Korea with the continental part of Eurasia. It is the diversification of trading partners that is an urgent task not only for the Republic of Korea, but also for the Central Asian states, which pushes them towards practical cooperation.[5]
On the other hand, the possibility of obtaining new sources for economic growth through Eurasian integration associations will allow in the long term to build a dialogue with Russia on the solution of the “Korean issue”, as well as to participate in the future of the Eurasian space. In this regard, the Republic of Korea will have to solve problems in the context of existing contradictions between key global actors, namely, to find a balance between its own national interests and the strategies of other regional actors.
According to the New Northern Policy, three regions or three economic corridors are distinguished:
Each region provides for cooperation in the most key areas from Seoul’s point of view:
- Central region – areas of resource development and infrastructure development.
Legal support of projects of interest to corporations of the Republic of Korea – oil refining and petrochemicals, roads, and airports, as well as combined heat and power plants.
- Western region: Russia – focus on industrial progress based on the development of the manufacturing industry and high-tech industries; Ukraine – high technologies in the field of ICT and aerospace; Belarus is a service sector and manufacturing industry.
- East Region – Increased development demand associated with the new eastern policy and the Mongolia-China-Russia economic corridor. Development and promotion of projects in connection with the China-Mongolia-Russia economic corridor initiative; increased use of the Trans-China Railway and Trans-Mongolian Railway; reunification of the railways of the Republic of Korea and North Korea.[6]
As it can be seen, in the framework of the New Economic Policy, the Republic of Korea is rather interested in creating infrastructural routes to connect the island with Eurasia and in the development of subsoil in order to gain access to resources.
In 2018, the following tasks were set:
- moving forward with the 9-Bridge Strategy (energy, railways and infrastructure, shipbuilding, ports and navigation, medicine, agriculture and fisheries, investment and innovation, culture and tourism).
- implementation of differentiated strategies for different areas.
- creation of institutional and financial infrastructure for expanding economic cooperation.
- engaging more areas such as culture and human resources in cooperation and exchange projects.
- providing support for solving the difficulties faced by corporations.[7]
2020 was declared the year of “Northern Economic Cooperation”, where the achievement of practical results is the most accurate tool for assessing the effectiveness of the policy pursued. It is too early to talk about the results of the New Northern Policy, since the process of building a course for Seoul towards Eurasia is undergoing institutional changes. The New Northern Policy is “new” for the foreign policy of the Republic of Korea towards a number of Central Asian states and even towards Russia.
Cooperation Forum “Republic of Korea – Central Asia”
The Forum is a diplomatic platform for discussing the progress of projects, as well as for developing joint actions and initiatives at the level of the RK + 5 Central Asian states.
The regional approach, as the experience of almost all non-regional actors demonstrates, is not an effective instrument for achieving goals. In practice, relations are built much more efficiently on a bilateral basis. Therefore, with the declared “Central Asian direction”, there is an asymmetry of cooperation with the five republics, where the most obvious are relations with Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
As stated on the official website of the Secretariat, the forums have been held “since 2007 as a state-civil integrated advisory council to strengthen cooperation in mutual exchange and increase mutual understanding.”[8]
The Forum has identified 6 medium- and long-term goals in the Central Asia region:
- Transport and logistics (creation of regional logistics transportation centers and complex terminals).
- Energy – rational use and new energy sources (reduction of energy losses; new renewable energy sources).
- Modernization and diversification of industry (management of special economic zones and privatization of state-owned enterprises).
- Climate change – ecology (development of forestry to prevent desertification; creation of a complex of clean ecological raw materials).
- Healthcare and medicine (creation of a network of clinical treatment; exchange of doctors; improvement of infrastructure).
- Education – culture (creation of a network of new generation managers, expansion of cultural and sports exchanges, E-learning system).
There are projects in all six areas, but most of the programs operate in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
Republic of Korea – Central Asia: mutual economic expectations
The potential for cooperation is determined by the context of the broad opportunities of the Republic of Korea and the readiness of the Central Asian states to adopt Korean know-how in practice, which requires not only reformatting the digital infrastructure, but also significant investments. In this regard, the positive elements of cooperation include “the relative flexibility and negotiability of Seoul and its lack of serious geopolitical interests in Central Asia.”[9]
The Republic of Korea initially positions itself as a reference model of economic development for the Central Asian republics. The “Miracle on the Hangang River” or the Korean economic miracle in a fairly short period of 30-40 years has turned the country from a rather backward agrarian state into a center of scientific and innovative development, which made it possible to become a leader in high technologies. The GDP of the Republic of Korea, according to forecasts for 2021, should amount to 1.586 trillion USD, which allows it to be in 10th place in the ranking of developed countries. This factor is attractive in terms of both learning from experience and receiving direct Korean investments in Central Asian economies. The Republic of Korea is already acting as a major investor for the economy of two regional leaders – Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
The country of morning dew is the second most important investor for the economy of Uzbekistan and the third for Kazakhstan. The Republic of Korea is one of the top 5 major investors in the economy of Uzbekistan. As of 2019, Uzbekistan is South Korea’s third-largest partner in the countries of Europe and Central Asia with emerging market: with trade turnover in 2019 of 2.7 billion USD, and South Korean investment exceeding 7 billion USD. A negotiation process has begun between Seoul and Tashkent on the “Agreement on Sustainable Trade and Economic Partnership (STEP)”. The fund for cooperation in the field of economic development was increased – if earlier the credit limit for public infrastructure projects was 500 million USD, now it is provided up to 1 billion USD for 2021-2023. The creation of a free trade zone can become a platform for expanding economic cooperation between states.
It is known that Korean companies are actively involved in the economy of Uzbekistan. Since 2009, the management of Navoi Airport has been carried out by Korean Air Cargo, which has built the largest terminal in the region with an apron and technical premises for cargo transportation, which has allowed the expansion of air hubs.[10] The Republic of Korea also participated in the creation of two free economic zones, Navoi and Angren. According to the statistics of the Ministry of Investments and Foreign Trade of Uzbekistan, from 2008 to 2020, 73 projects worth 730.7 million USD were implemented in the Angren FEZ; and in “Navoi” there are 53 projects worth 282.8 million USD.[11]
Also, the Republic of Korea is among the top 10 major investors in Kazakhstan’s economy, with a total share of over 6 billion USD. Kazakhstan is interesting for Seoul in terms of supplies of oil products and uranium needed for nuclear power plants. The Republic of Korea imports about 30% of the imported uranium from Kazakhstan. In 2021 alone, it was possible to agree on the implementation of 34 agreements worth 1.7 billion USD.[12] It is known that Korean companies have signed contracts for major energy and infrastructure projects in Central Asia: ferroplast plants in Kazakhstan; Bukhara Oil Refinery in Uzbekistan; gas chemical complex Kiyanly in Turkmenistan.[13] Areas of cooperation cover the development of special economic zones, agriculture, medicine, energy, scientific technology, education, culture.[14]
Koryo-saram
The Republic of Korea is also seeking to expand its humanitarian presence in the region, where more than 300 thousand so-called – koryo saram or Russian-speaking Koreans live. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea, in the Central Asian region, the largest part of ethnic Koreans lives in Uzbekistan – 178 thousand, in Kazakhstan – 110 thousand, Kyrgyzstan – 19 thousand, Turkmenistan – 1 thousand, Tajikistan – 800.[15]
Koreans as administrative settlers from the Far East were resettled to the region in 1937, which prescribed them to restrict their movement outside Central Asia until 1957. After the collapse of the USSR, active migration continued among the 4th generation of Koreans, who, according to various estimates, rushed to Kazakhstan and Russia. However, the Koryo-saram of Central Asia practically do not speak the Korean dialect, Koryo-mar, and the soft power of the Republic of Korea is popular with almost all ethnic groups in Central Asia.[16]
Finding cheap labor with record numbers since 2005, falling birth rates and the presence of elderly people for the Republic of Korea is becoming more priority than ever. About 8 million Koreans live outside the state and encouraging their return, as well as attracting foreign labor, has become an important point of demographic regulation. Immigrants from Central Asia can take vacant jobs, which becomes a source of both legal and illegal migration. About 12 thousand people from Kazakhstan alone work in the Republic of Korea on an illegal basis.[17] In this regard, the introduction of a visa-free regime between the Republic of Korea and the Central Asian republics is perceived as mutually beneficial cooperation.
Soft power of the Republic of Korea
The soft power of the Republic of Korea is more attractive and is not perceived as a threat to local culture in the Central Asian states. This can be partly explained by the existing experience of living together with Koryo-saram for several decades, when Koreans became not only Russian-speaking, but also learned the local languages and became part of local communities. The success of the Republic of Korea, its economic miracle, high technology, and culture are admired by many in the Central Asian region. Sometimes the common belonging to the Altai language group is emphasized, which also brings peoples closer together.
The experience of paying off external debt is an amazing example of the unity and cohesion of the Korean nation during difficult times. Almost 3.5 million Koreans participated in the process of collecting gold to reduce the foreign debt of the Republic of Korea to the IMF in 1998. In 4 months, the efforts of the entire Korean nation, from large corporations-chaebol to ordinary housewives, collected 227 tons of gold worth 2.13 billion UD, which made it possible to pay off the external debt.[18]
Such initiatives are also being undertaken in Kyrgyzstan to reduce the volume of external debt, but so far, they have not been very popular.
The effectiveness of promoting its soft power can be measured by the activities of KOCIS and Korea.net. KOCIS – Korea Cultural Information Service has been operating since 1971, which is the main body for promoting everything Korean in the world, providing up-to-date background information.
Korea.net is an online platform in 9 languages that provides up-to-date information on Korea in almost every area, from government announcements to information on musicians and upcoming events. The service has Talk Talk Korea, where reporters from all over the world upload their reports related to the country of the morning dew or ethnic Koreans living overseas.[19]
The so-called Korean Wave, or Hallyu, attracts different age groups in the region through video games, music, TV series and films. There are several directions within Hallyu:
K-pop is popular with young performers, and family toi (wedding) and celebrations are hard to imagine without Gangnam Style. The annual K-Pop party in Tashkent brings together fans of Korean pop music from all over the Central Asian region. Attempts are being made to create various boy bands to popularize K-pop in the region.
Doramas – Korean drama series, which are notable for their short duration, and which hold viewers’ attention until the end. Moreover, the creation of films, such as “Parasites”, which won an Oscar in 2019, is the first film not in English, awarded high recognition in 4 nominations at once: “Best Film”, “Best Director”, “Best Original Screenplay», “Best International Feature Film”. The name Ku Joon Pyo (or Goo Joon Pyo) is known to many. In Kyrgyzstan, they even filmed the movie “How to Marry Gu Jun Pe” in 2011 with a budget of $ 20,000.
Korean language and culture centers operate in almost all capitals of Central Asia and are actively supported by the Embassies of the Republic of Korea. There is an education center of the Republic of Korea in Bishkek and Tashkent; Palace of Korean Culture and Art in Tashkent; Kyrgyz Korean Information Access Center (Bishkek); The Korean Cultural Center in Astana; Tashkent city Korean cultural center in Tashkent, etc. The centers hold various events dedicated to Korean culture and language, for example, the “Week of Korean Culture” in Uzbekistan on 24.09-5.10.2021; and also hold exhibitions, festivals, music competitions, literary evenings, celebrations of Korean holidays, open lectures by professors, theatrical performances, etc. One can note a wide range and richness of events on the part of these centers.
In 2019, the Uzbek Korean International University in Fergana was opened with a total funding of 11.9 million USD, focused on training specialists in technical and engineering specialization and humanitarian areas.[20] In February 2021, Korean companies donated 275 robots and 350 teaching aids to preschool institutions in Uzbekistan to develop robotics and programming skills in 6-year-old children.[21]
Korean cuisine is popular because of Koryo-saram as well as new establishments in catering. Both budget establishments at the fast-food level and restaurants are presented. Kimchi, pigodi, ttoki, sunche, kusu, gimpab, etc. have become the favorite dishes of Central Asians living in big cities.
K-beauty is a popular cosmetic for hygiene and care that is popular among citizens of Central Asian states.
In general, the passion for music, doramas and films contributes to the intensification of interest in the Korean language, culture, cuisine, and the state as a whole, which undoubtedly increases the symbolic capital of the Republic of Korea in the Central Asian region.
“Curse of Presidents”
The “Curse of Presidents” of the Republic of Korea is a collective image of the fate of all 12 presidents of the state since 1948, when the life of all presidents is associated with various criminal persecutions, military overthrows, riots, suicides and difficult fates of their close relatives and entourage. Syngman Rhee was the first President of the Republic of Korea from 1948-1960, who was forced to leave his homeland as a result of mass unrest. Most often, presidents were announced early impeachment, they were removed as a result of military coups, prosecuted and imprisoned, almost many were accused of lobbying the interests of close relatives or friends, corruption, and authoritarian methods of government. Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung are perhaps the only presidents who ruled until the end of their terms, but their sons ended up in jail for corruption and lobbying; Roh Moo-hyun was a witness in his brother’s case of state embezzlement, as a result was found dead, allegedly committed suicide; another president, Lee Myung-bak, also suffered from the actions of his brother and his wife’s cousin; the first female president, Park Geun-hye, was sentenced to 22 years for the actions of her girlfriend. Park Chung-hee was shot dead by his associate in 1979 amid the civil disorder.
If one recalls the fate of ex-presidents in Central Asia, then two former ex-presidents, while being in the post of the first persons, had passed away – S. Niyazov and I. Karimov; E. Rahmon came to power after the Civil War; the fate of the former presidents of Kyrgyzstan is known to everyone; only N. Nazarbayev managed to transfer his powers peacefully.
Conclusion
The Republic of Korea has always been interesting to the Central Asian states in terms of diversifying trade and economic partners, and on the other hand, as a reference model for adopting an economic miracle, high technologies, and investments. The proposed New North Policy of the Republic of Korea views the Central Asia region as one of three regions for economic cooperation in resource development and infrastructure development. In this regard, Seoul will have to actively cooperate with other actors with similar initiatives and geopolitical interests. The pragmatism of the Central Asian elites in foreign policy is most clearly presented in relations with the Republic of Korea.
[1] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Korea https://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/wpge/m_21618/contents.do
[2] KOICA in Uzbekistan //https://invest.gov.uz/ru/partnery/partnyory-mfi/korejskoe-agentstvo-mezhdunarodnogo-sotrudnichestva-koica
[3] Events of Korean government organizations in Bishkek // https://overseas.mofa.go.kr/kg-ky/brd/m_20744/view.do?seq=10&srchFr=&srchTo=&srchWord=&srchTp=& multi_itm_seq = 0 & amp; itm_seq_1 = 0 & amp; itm_seq_2 = 0 & amp
[4] Om Goo Ho. Strategy of the New Northern Policy and Its Restrictive Factors // Bulletin of St. Petersburg University. International relationships. – 2020. – T. 13. – Issue. 3. – P. 354–373.
[5] Bulanakova M.A. Eurasian vector of foreign policy of the Republic of Korea: the factor of Central Asia // Eurasian integration: economics, law, politics. 2020.No. 4. P. 70 – 87.
[6] Presidential Committee on Northern Economic Cooperation https://www.bukbang.go.kr/bukbang_en/vision_policy/strategy/
[7] Presidential Committee on Northern Economic Cooperation // https://www.bukbang.go.kr/bukbang_en/vision_policy/vision/;jsessionid=wiNhMgDoMSe12G0mZPhMHis3.node10
[8] Secretariat of the “Republic of Korea – Central Asia” Forum // https://www.kf.or.kr/korcenRus/cm/cntnts/cntntsView2.do?mi=1924
[9]Nargiza Muratalieva, South Korea in Central Asia: inclusion in Eurasia // https://www.caa-network.org/archives/15513
[10] Navoi Airport //https://www.tourister.ru/world/asia/uzbekistan/city/navoiy/airports/7039
[11] Free economic zones of Uzbekistan: results of 2020 and development prospects for 2021 https://mift.uz/ru/menu/svobodnye-ekonomicheskie-zony-uzbekistana-itogi-2020-goda-i-perspektivy-razvitija-na-2021-god
[12] Kazakhstan and South Korea signed agreements worth 1.7 billion USD \\https://kapital.kz/economic/97977/kazakhstan-i-yuzhnaya-koreya-podpisali-soglasheniya-na-1-7-mlrd.html
[13] New Northern Policy shows some results, but lacks deeper philosophy // https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2021/08/120_314235.html
[14] Secretariat of the “Republic of Korea – Central Asia” Forum // https://www.kf.or.kr/korcenRus/cm/cntnts/cntntsView2.do?mi=1924
[15] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Korea https://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/wpge/m_21618/contents.do
[16] Koreans in Kazakhstan: to dissolve among the people of the country where they were sent https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-almaty-korean-language-article/31114870.html
[17] How many illegal immigrants from Kazakhstan are there in South Korea https://tengrinews.kz/news/skolko-nelegalov-iz-kazahstana-v-yujnoy-koree-399942/
[18] Hong Yu Korean Wave. How did a small country conquered the whole world. – M., 2021.
[19] Korea-net official website // https://m.korea.net/russian/AboutUs/KOCIS#
[20] The Uzbek Korean International University is implementing projects for 11.9 million USD// https://www.gazeta.uz/ru/2020/06/12/kiuf/
[21] Uzbekistan and Korea improve cooperation in the field of education // https://sng.today/tashkent/15731-uzbekistan-i-koreja-uluchshajut-sotrudnichestvo-v-oblasti-obrazovanija-i-innovacij.html